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One day in the summer of AD 390, the gates around the packed horse arena of Thessalonica - the Eastern Roman Empire's second city - slammed shut. Armed legionaries spilled out through the tunnels and waded into the stands, to cut down the crowds like ears of wheat. The stands ran red with blood as between seven thousand and fifteen thousand civilians were butchered that day. What madness drove the soldiers of the empire to such depths of brutality? The madness, it seems, of Emperor Theodosius I, master of the Roman world.  Two Months Earlier...The imperial hall in Milan - the effective capital of the Western Roman Empire at the time - was abuzz with chatter, the scrip-scrape of scribe's pens on vellum, the hasty coming and going of messengers and administrators. Presiding over it all was Theosdosius I - Emperor of the entire Roman world, East and West. Milan was his temporary home, and had been ever since winning the civil war against Magnus Maximus. That campaign had been so brutal (with the Battle of the River Save being particularly bloody) that he had been unable to extricate himself from the aftermath and return to his true seat of power - the city of Constantinople, jewel of the Eastern Empire for two years and counting. Understandably, Theodosius would have been preoccupied, stressed and anxious with the burden of repairing the war-damaged West. So when yet another messenger from the East arrived, he probably thought it was to ask again when he would be returning to the East. After all, the hasty framework of deputies he had left behind there before marching on Maximus' West had been assembled to rule in his stead for a few months, not years.  The Battle of the River Save saw countless Roman legions pitched into battle against one another. Artwork by Sean Ó’Brógáín. Just as his hackles were rising, as his lungs filled to explain for the hundredth time that he could not yet extricate himself from the civil war's aftermath, the messenger announced to him details of a completely different matter. Butheric, one of the trusted commanders whom Theodosius had left in charge at Thessalonica, had been lynched by an angry mob of racegoers. They attacked him, hacked off his limbs and dragged his trunk through the city streets. His crime? The arrest of a chariot racing champion and crowd favourite whom he caught in the act of raping a stable boy.  The Hippodrome (horse racing arena) of Thessalonica. Digital art by The Byzantine Legacy. Incensed, Theodosius sent the messenger back to the East with orders to throw the populace of Thessalonica new races, that they would never forget... Yet the messenger was no sooner away, than Theodosius became gripped with guilt. Fiercely pious - it was he who had declared Nicene Christianity as the empire's official state religion in AD 380 - he realised that many innocents would die, for the mob who had mutilated and killed Butheric had numbered only a few hundred. He sent off a new messenger at haste, tasked with repealing the order to slaughter the crowds. The message never reached its destination, and the great massacre described at the top of this article took place. Theodosius set aside his crown and purple robes and spent the rest of that year in Milan's cathedral. Dressed in rags, he crawled up and down the aisle, begging Bishop Ambrosius to forgive him for what he had done. It wasn't until Christmas 390 that Ambrosius restored him to the community of the faithful and permitted once again to take communion.  Emperor Theodosius I begs Bishop Ambrosius of Milan to be allowed to take communion. Painting by Anthonis Van Dyke c1619. Come spring AD 391, he finally began the long journey home to Constantinople. By all accounts he was a broken, tormented figure, driven mad by guilt and convinced that the best means of atonement was a furious new tide of Christian zeal. It began with a spate of increasingly-brutal anti-pagan edicts. The Old Gods Shall Die!On 24th Feb AD 391, Theodosius banned the ancient pagan practice of sacrifice (usually the slaughter of animals in offering to the old gods), forbade entry into the old temples, and prohibited the burning of incense - the only herbs allowed to be burned being thyme and rosemary (a Christian "Holy Smoke" of sorts) “No-one shall pollute himself with sacrificial offerings; no-one shall slaughter an innocent victim; no person shall approach the sanctuaries, shall wander all over the temples, or revere images created by mortal labour, lest he become guilty by divine and human laws.” - from the Codex Theodosianus. But pagans were fiercely protective of their ancient ways, and took to worshipping in private houses. It became almost the reverse of the situation a century before, when Christians had to worship in secret, fearing persecution. In June 391, Theodosius explicitly forbade apostasy (conversion to paganism), and fiercely underlined his earlier rulings that pagan temples were a thing of the past. Christian monks took this as permission to go and smash up pagan shrines. Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria, oversaw the violent destruction of the Serapeum - the statue of Nile god that for eons had brought about the yearly and life-giving inundation of Egypt's grain fields. During the violence, the attached library was also destroyed and its riches looted. The following year, Christians were jubilant when the Nile rose again in the normal way regardless of the statue's demolition.  An artist's impression of the Serapeum (the statue of Serapis the Nile God, in Egypt). On 8th November 391, the darkest decree was issued: that any and all acts of sacrifice would result in death for the perpetrator, regardless of rank or class. In 393 he declared that the Olympic Games were a symbol of paganism, and that they would no longer take place. Then in 394, the eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum was extinguished, and the Vestal Virgins were disbanded. Now seems an apt. moment to quote the poet, Horace: “The wise man ought to bear the name of madman, the just of unjust, if they should pursue virtue herself with disproportionate zeal.” - Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace). Theodosius did at least issue one law that stood out amidst this tide of violent persecution: all capital sentences were to have a 30 day delay. This might have been down to his unshakeable guilt about the Thessalonica massacre that had triggered all this. We don't know how many were spared thanks to this 'month of mercy'. The ConsequencesThe furious Christian zeal destabilised the regime in Eastern Empire, and deeply unsettled the Western Empire, pitting the largely pagan Senatorial families of Rome and the populace of the land against the reforms that were being pushed upon them. They and the people of the West were ripe for mobilisation, for an emperor of their own. And it just so happened that there was a power-hungry warlord at the head of the Western legions who had been waiting for an opportunity like this... Why not step into that ancient time, and live out the adventures of the legions caught up in all this chaos? My novel, LEGIONARY: DEVOTIO, will take you there!
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On 24th August AD 410, Rome's starving inhabitants threw open the Salarian Gate, allowing the besieging Visigothic horde to flood in. Thus fell the Eternal City, for the first time in nearly eight hundred years.
OriginsAlaric was born around AD 370, on Peuce, a large, arrowhead-shaped island in the delta of the River Danube - the fault line between the Eastern Roman Empire and Gothic 'barbaricum' (modern Romania and beyond). The Goths of this era were a collection of tribes and tribal confederations, the largest of which were the Thervingi and the Greuthingi. So close to the empire, one can imagine his tribal elders holding court around the fires, telling the Gothic young of the might of the Romans, and of their great city of gold and marble one thousand miles distant: Rome - eternal, invincible.  The Roman Empire in the late 4th century AD. Note Peuce Island and, of course, the city of Rome. For generations before Alaric's time, the Goths had what can best be described as an awkward relationship with the empire. They traded with the Romans, and sometimes they served alongside the legions as foederati (allies). But they also raided south of the Danube, and so too the legions waded north of the Danube to violently punish this Gothic aggression. Despite all this, their world was stable. Then everything changed in the mid-370s with the arrival from the eastern steppelands of a ravening nomadic people. When the Huns came, Alaric's world was shattered.  The Huns were unstoppable.  Eastern Roman Emperor Valens (bust from the Capitoline Museum, Rome). The Gothic warriors could not cope with the Huns' unorthodox and deadly way of horse combat. Arrow showers and rapid, false retreats was a skill no European people could counter. One by one, the Gothic and other Germanic tribes were destroyed or subjugated by the Huns. Desperate, the Greuthingi and Thervingi amassed at the Danube's northern banks opposite the Roman river frontier fortress town of Durostorum (modern Silistra, Bulgaria) and begged the Roman officials there to permit them to cross, to escape the fury of the Huns. Alaric would have been with them - a boy, confused and frightened by the sight of his elders gripped by terror like this. The emperor of the time - Valens - realised he had no option. If he said no, the Goths would likely break across the river anyway - with the Huns at their backs and in fear for their lives. So he allowed them entry, thinking he might perhaps recruit their many warriors into his depleted legions. Vast refugee camps were thrown up on the imperial side of the river. But the Roman officers who presided over them were greedy, and began profiteering when food supplies ran short. A certain Count Lupicinus began selling the starving Goths dog meat in return for their children, whom he then sold into slavery for personal profit. Whatever kind of impression Alaric had of the Roman Empire prior to this, it was surely blackened almost irredeemably by Lupicinus' actions. Understandably, the Goths rose up in revolt. A revolt borne of anger, of insult. They rampaged around Thrace, breaking and pillaging imperial cities. They also dealt the empire probably its greatest defeat in centuries at the Battle of Adrianople, where they crushed the legions and killed Emperor Valens himself. This 'Gothic War' gripped all of Thrace for six years. No Roman or Goth ever felt safe during these times. The war finally ended in AD 382 when both sides, exhausted, and realising that this was an unwinnable conflict, agreed a peace treaty. The new emperor, Theodosius I, granted the Goths a series of arable settlements on Roman land (around northern Thrace), known as the 'Haims'. A tense co-existence followed. Many Goths were recruited into the legions and the ambitious amongst them forged careers in the emperor's service, some even rising to serve in his sacred council.
After only a few years, the peace deal began to fray. The treaty had never 'fixed' the Goths' anti-Roman sentiment, and Alaric himself had never been able to reconcile the things he had witnessed and experienced in his youth or seen since. He, like many like-minded Goths, felt angered that his people's sovereignty had been sold by those who had agreed the 382 deal - a deal he had had no say in personally. Around this time - reaching his late teens - he cemented a position of prominence amongst the Goths, and became the figurehead for his people's underground disquiet. Come AD 388, the warriors of the Gothic Haims were mustered for the coming war between the Eastern Empire and the usurper who had seized the Western throne, Magnus Maximus. While encamped one night during the westwards march with the Eastern legions, Alaric led a desertion of a significant portion of the Gothic allies. They melted into the woods and marshes. The campaign Alaric then waged against the empire was much more shrewd than the Gothic War of 376-382. It was a guerrilla campaign, targeted at the empire's weaknesses. For three years, he proved a deadly thorn in Emperor Theodosius I's side, hiding in Thracia's vast expanse of hills and woods, gathering in more and more followers - men of the Bastarnae tribe, Hun mercenaries, even Romans who were disaffected by the emperor's spiraling and violent pro-Nicene Christian zeal. The Roman poet Claudian wrote disparagingly of Alaric as "a little-known menace", but he and his force dealt the empire some serious blows, including blockading and almost capturing Emperor Theodosius at the Hebrus River during his journey home from the Western Empire in the spring of AD 391.  The Roman Diocese of Thrace, circa AD 391. Note that a few Gothic 'Haims' remained loyal to the imperial throne, but many had gone over to Alaric's rebellion.  Stilicho, the up and coming Roman general of the time. Finally in AD 391, Stilicho - an Eastern general of the highest repute - cornered Alaric and his forces on the baking hot plains of Thrace. The soldiers braced for battle, but there was one last chance: talks, terms, a way to end the day without blood being spilled. Stilicho stepped forward from his legionary lines. Alaric strode from the Gothic front to meet him. A cloud of emissaries and diplomats followed both. Details of the parley that took place are sketchy. We know only that Roman political rivals present served to almost spurn this chance of agreeing terms. But terms were agreed. Alaric agreed to stand his rebel army down. He also conceded to make his forces available to the emperor, to fight alongside the legions whenever they were needed. In return, he demanded that his wandering nation - a nation that would come to be known as the Visigoths* - should be exempt from all other imperial tethers, including taxes. And that the Romans recognise him as their leader - leader of all those Goths and others who had flocked to support his cause. The King of All had arrived in earnest. A note on the term 'Visigoth'The Visigoths of Alaric's time never actually called themselves 'Visigoths'. This was a post-hoc term used by Cassiodorus, writing in the 6th century. He used it to distinguish the descendants of Alaric from the other major Gothic grouping of his time, the Ostrogoths. One theory is that the Ostrogoths mean the 'Eastern Goths' and the Visigoths meant the 'Western Goths'. It should be noted, however, that there was a smaller Gothic tribe from Alaric's time known as the Vesi - a word which translates roughly as 'Worthy'. This may be the etymological explanation for the term Visigoth. And his Visigothic army was called upon soon, for the Eastern and Western Empires were at loggerheads once more, thanks to a disputed succession in the West. A second civil war was brewing. This time, Alaric stayed true to the terms he had personally agreed in the 391 treaty. He and his Visigothic army fought like lions in the climactic and ruinous Battle of the Frigidus River in AD 394 - a clash that ended in the favour of the Eastern Empire and settled the civil war. This should, one would think, have calcified the bond between the Romans and the Visigoths? Alas, no. The aftermath changed the Roman world forever. Emperor Theodosius died of dropsy, leaving a realm of broken legions, a bankrupt economy, and his two idiot sons on the thrones of East and West. Power, as they say, abhors a vacuum. So it was that the ambitious men of the empire began wrestling to control the boy emperors. Some sought to use Alaric and his Visigoths in their political games, and this quickly destroyed the bonds that had been forged in the civil war campaign. Alaric was made promises of a position of authority in the imperial military - promises that were reneged upon. Also, the Visigothic people themselves began to reflect on what had happened at the River Frigidus: some ten thousand of them had been slain. Spiteful gossip arose: that they had been used as expendable spear fodder in the front lines of that conflict. The accord of 391 dissolved, and the Visigoths became hostile to the empire once more. For the next decade and a half, Alaric and his wandering nation roved across the Roman Empire from West to East and back again, raiding and plundering, taking on new followers, and making battle with the legions - most often with his old nemesis, Stilicho. In time, Stilicho came to respect Alaric, and understood that the Visigoths were simply too powerful to destroy or subjugate. He worked hard to educate the Western Emperor, Honorius, and the Roman Senate on this reality. Eventually, they realised he was right, and so they loathingly accepted the Visigoths' presence in Gaul. They even accepted high-ranking Visigothic families into their Italian cities and into their halls of government.  The Battle of the Frigidus, 5th & 6th September AD 394. When, in AD 408, a coup was launched upon Stilicho by a political rival, these Visigothic families were seen as Stilicho's allies. Stilicho was beheaded, and the Gothic families were massacred. Enraged once again by the empire's bloody duplicity, Alaric marched upon Italy, surrounding Emperor Honorius' capital of Ravenna. Promised vast sums of gold and silver in tribute, along with some 40,000 freed Gothic slaves, and offered the high command of the Roman army, he withdrew. When these terms were then reneged upon, Alaric knew he had to make the biggest statement of all, and so he marched on Rome herself - the city of legend that his elders had once talked of around the Peuce Island campfires. The so-called 'sack' of Rome was not the frenzy of flames and looting that one might imagine. Despite all Alaric had suffered at the empire's hands, he understood - just as Stilicho had - that his people and the Romans had to find a way to live together. Damage to the city was limited to senate house (which was burnt down) and the Salarian Gate. Pillage was limited to easily movable objects. More, the Visigoths respected Rome's Christian temples as places of sanctuary.  The 'Alaric Bridge' over the River Busento, Italy. This was to the final major act of Alaric's incredible life. Following the sack of Rome, he became suddenly ill and died. Legend has it that his loyal warriors diverted the River Bucentius (the modern Busento, Italy), and buried him in the exposed riverbed, before returning the waters to their normal flow, so that nobody would ever be able to desecrate his remains. Read all about Alaric's incredible rise to power, in my new novel: LEGIONARY: DEVOTIO
“Fear and flight, death and blood, The above words, set down in Livy's 'The history of Rome since the foundation of the city', were uttered in 295 BC at Sentinum in southern Italy by the Roman cavalry commander, Publius Decius Mus, in a desperate moment of battle against an overwhelming force of invading Gauls and their Samnite allies. As the legions retreated around him, he climbed into the saddle of his horse and charged the mass of enemy warriors… and to his death. Livy goes on to report that this moment saw the scales of victory tilt in favour of the Romans.  Attack of the Samnites on the Roman army at Sentinum. Image from Ancient Warfare Magazine. One can only imagine the profound effect of those who witnessed their commander - during the panicked moments of almost certain defeat - lay down his life to stir the hearts of his comrades. What more can a person give to a cause, than their very existence? And this is the essence of the ancient Roman oath of 'Devotio' - the word from which the modern term 'devotion' is derived. DEVOTIO (noun) Ultimately, the Romans won the Battle of Sentinum, leaving about 8,700 fallen legionaries on the battlefield, obliterating 25,000 enemies and enslaving another 8,000. Publius' decision was not born in the eye of disaster. In fact he was following the example of his father, named also Publius Decius Mus, who, some forty years prior, while losing against a horde of Latins at the Battle of Veseris (near Mt. Vesuvius), threw himself against the enemy lines in a frenzy, causing them great panic. The Latins thought he was mad, and none wanted to clash swords with him. They were so disturbed by his mindless bravery, that they backed off and threw their spears at him instead, killing him. This was enough to break the Latins' momentum, to fragment their lines. Publius' Roman cohorts - inspired by their commander's self-sacrifice, roared back against the enemy, crushing them. There are many other recorded instances of 'Devotio' in moments of near-disaster during battle - perhaps most famously by King Leonidas of Sparta during the darkest moments of his clash with the overwhelming Persian army at Thermopylae in 480 BC.  King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans try to resist a reportedly 1 million strong Persian army at Thermopylae, 480 BC. The RitualFor the Romans, where time permitted - for example, the night before a battle where the odds were not looking good - there was a ritual to accompany the oath of Devotio. The oath giver would don a white toga with a purple hem, known as the toga praetexta, then step onto a spear lying on the ground. A pontifex (priest) would then chant the words of the vow, which the oath giver would repeat. Livy records the words of the Devotio oath as:
Another Form of DevotioAs well as meaning life-for-victory in battle, Devotio could also take another, more personal form - that of sacrificing your own life in exchange for saving another person. It is this second type of Devotio that underpins my eponymous new novel, set in the Late Roman Empire's most chaotic years. A story that asks the question:
What lengths would you go to, to save the ones you love?  All legends must end LEGIONARY: DEVOTIO The tenth and final part of the Legionary saga is almost here. You've journeyed with Pavo and the XI Claudia for nearly a decade and a half. You've been there through all the chaos, bloodshed, reckless heroism and adventures. Are you ready for the final chapter? AD 391: in the aftermath of civil war, the Roman Empire lies broken. The emperor is missing. Rumours fly that he has lost his mind. Sensing weakness, the Goths rise in revolt. All to the delight of the dark hand who orchestrated the civil war… and plots to stoke another. Far out at sea, Pavo stands watchfully at the prow of the Justitia, running cargo between distant lands. At every port, he hears of the empire's swelling troubles. Of fire and zeal and panic. Of legions, bristling for battle. But his days of protecting the provinces with sword and shield are over. He, his wife and his lad will soon have enough funds to make a home on a quiet island, far from the madness. Yet the empire is an ever-hungry beast, and Pavo is about to sail straight into its jaws… It is a journey that will take him to the brink, and throw down before him the question to which there is only one answer: what would you sacrifice to save your loved ones? Blood, treachery, reckless heroism, justice, honour. This story has it all.  LEGIONARY: DEVOTIO will be released on 27th March 2025 - Preorder now!
 Devotio was easily the most difficult and cathartic story I've every had to write. You'll understand as soon as you read the dedication.
But what a ride it's been writing this series. Thank you - each and every one of you - for supporting me and my stories through the years. I couldn't have done it without you. So I hope this one gives you the thrills and escapism that you all deserve! Thanks to all you wonderful people - and watch out for some big news about brand new historical adventures coming soon from yours truly :)  The famous 'Iron Gates' on the River Danube. The River Danube, named after the Celtic or Scythian Mother Goddess Danu, goes by several other names. The Greeks knew it as the Istros (meaning 'strong, swift'), the Phrygians as the Matoas (bringer of luck), the Mongolians as the Thona. After the Volga in Russia, the Danube is the second longest river in Europe, running through ten modern countries. 2,000 years ago, it was established as the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. As such, it effectively shaped and defined the empire, and remained as the edge of the realm (give or take a few periods of further conquest and enemy invasion) all the way through late antiquity and on into the 'Byzantine' period.  The long and wending path of the River Danube (blue), and the lay of the land in Europe circa AD 386.  The many imperial forts along the Thracian edge of the river. Image by Ziegelbrenner. As such, the southern banks were studded with forts, watchtowers and river ports. The late Roman Army established a particular class of soldiery to guard this frontier: the limitanei ripenses, meaning 'the soldiers on the riverbank'. Skilled scouts, skirmishers and boatswains, these troops were the first line of defence against threats from the wild north, also known as 'barbaricum'. Their job was to watch for attacks and repel them if they could. If the attack proved to strong they would instead do their best to contain the enemy while raising the alarm and summoning the heavy troopers and cavalry of the closest field army (a central reserve) to the scene.  The ripenses on duty along the riverbanks. Artwork by Amelianus @ DeviantArt  An artist's impression of Dunakeszi fortlet on the Danube banks. Image courtesy of Danubetourism.eu. The Danube was not only a naturally defensible barrier, but also a highway for trade ships, carrying amber, wine, furs, livestock, spices and silks and much much more to and fro between Western Europe and the Black Sea. It was, and remains, a provider too, replete with carp, sturgeon, salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube Delta and the lower portion of the river. At various times, a number of bridges spanned the river - some of stone, some of wood, and sometimes temporary pontoon bridges made of strapped together boats. One of the most famous bridges was that built by Emperor Trajan (see image, below). Built in the 2nd century AD to allow his troops to cross onto the northern banks and make war with the Dacians, it remained in place for over 160 years, before falling into disrepair. Piers from the bridge still remain in situ today.  An artist's impression of Trajan's Bridge. Image by Rapsak.  The remnant piers of the bridge. Image by Carole Raddato. Sometimes it suited the Romans to have easy access across the river and back... sometimes it definitely did not. For example, come the late 4th century AD, the Huns descended from the Eurasian steppe, they drove before them countless terrified Germanic and Scythian tribes. Had it not been for the Danube - by then (perhaps deliberately) bridgeless - the tribes could have spilled unchecked into the empire, no doubt quickly followed by their Hunnic pursuers. Instead, the broad waters of the Danube served as an impassable barrier, allowing the Romans to negotiate with and prudently admit tribes on terms that would be beneficial for both parties. That was the theory, at least... because when the Thervingi Goths were permitted to cross into Roman Thracia, greedy imperial officials abused and profiteered from the refugees, triggering the ruinous Gothic War - a 'domino' event that started with Emperor Valens being slain in battle and would one day lead to the sack of Rome itself.  Emperor Valens and his army in flight from the rampaging Goths.
 This is Magnus Maximus (meaning "Maximus the Great"). He earned the epithet "Magnus" thanks to a distinguished military career in the Roman legions. Born in AD 335 in Spain, he first rose to prominence in AD 368, when he served as a junior officer in the Heruli - an elite auxilia palatina, or palace regiment of the Western Empire. In this role, he helped the Roman general, Theodosius the Elder, to quell the Great Conspiracy in Britannia - a dangerous movement that saw the garrison of Hadrian's Wall rebel against the empire and ally with several barbarian tribes in an attempt to wrest control of the island from the empire.  AD 368, when the Hadrian's Wall garrison stood aside and let a whole host of tribes rage south into Roman Britannia. Image by Peter Jackson. After playing his part in this famous imperial victory, he would go on to fight and win against the Alemanni on the Danube River and the Moors in Africa. It seems that he might even have played a part in supporting the ascension of Theodosius the Younger (his general's son) to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire in AD 379. Eventually, he would return to Britannia after being promoted to the position of Comes Britanniarum - master of the island. His next triumph was against the Picts in AD 381. It seemed that his stock was destined to fly as high as the eagles, and that he would be remembered for all time as a Roman hero. Fast-forward seven years, to the 28th August 388 AD. On that day, he was seized by his fellow Romans and dragged out from his new headquarters at the city of Aquileia in northern Italy and, to a chorus of jeering, was beheaded like a common criminal. What on earth happened to bring about this spectacular fall from grace? Envy"Maximus was the countryman, the fellow-soldier, and the rival of Theodosius, whose elevation he had not seen without some emotions of envy and resentment. His provincial rank might justly be considered as a state of exile and obscurity."  Gratian, Western Roman Emperor during Maximus' military ascension... but for how much longer? Maximus was a man of frustrated ambition. He had watched Theodosius the Younger climb all the way to the Eastern throne, and yet he was stuck as the count of the relative backwater of Britannia. Come AD 383, an opportunity would arise to improve his station. On the continent, the reputation of the Western Roman Emperor, Gratian, had begun to slide from favour. His propensity for hunting to the neglect of the empire's problems raised discontent amongst the people. As Gibbon describes: "Large parks were enclosed for the Imperial pleasures, and plentifully stocked with every species of wild beasts, and Gratian neglected the duties and even the dignity of his rank to consume whole days in the vain display of his dexterity and boldness in the chase. Gratian also seems to have let his duty of governance drift into the hands of his bishops and advisors, at a time when the West needed a strong guiding hand. The army too, took umbrage at his favouring of a body of Alani (Iranian steppe warriors) as his household guard. And when he began parading around in Alani warrior garb, they had seen enough. The first standard of revolt was raised in Britannia, where the troops proclaimed their count, Maximus, as the true Western Emperor. Yet Maximus initially refused the acclaim. A modest reaction... or a strategic one designed to absolve him of blame for what might happen next? Regardless of Maximus' apparent modesty, the cries of revolt had been heard across the English channel. Gratian began to mobilise to meet the threat. Now, with the spectre of the hated Gratian readying to attack his islanders, Maximus accepted his troops' acclaim and stepped to the head of the revolt, announcing that they should strike first, before Gratian could fall upon them. The army of Britannia was already potent, with many seasoned veterans in its ranks. Adding to this, the young men of the island flocked to Maximus' banner, eager to carry him to victory. In AD 383, when he set sail for the continent on board an invasion fleet, it would long be remembered as the first permanent and most drastic removal of the large body of troops stationed in Britain. The elite Dalmaturum (Dalmatian) and Sarmaturum (Sarmatian) cavalry schools in particular were irreplacable.  The Sarmaturum riders - one of Roman Britannia's two elite cavalry schools. One theory is that they were initially composed of Sarmatian horsemen captured by the empire and resettled on the island. Artwork by Gerry Embleton. "After this, Britain is left deprived of all her soldiery and armed bands, of her cruel governors, and of the flower of her youth, who went with Maximus, but never again returned" Maximus avoided the obvious landing point of Caletum (Calais) and instead sailed up the Rhine, deep into Gratian's Gaulish heartland, before striking overland. On the way many of Gratian's soldiers - instead of resisting the invasion, joined it. Gratian, in residence in Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), tried to resist Maximus, but his support crumbled. He fled for Lugdunum (Lyon) where his wife was in residence, with only five hundred cavalry for protection. But Maximus had despatched his chief general, Andragathius, to speed ahead of his fleeing rival. Arriving at Lugdunum first, Andragathius reportedly hid in the veiled litter of Gratian's wife and had soldiers carry it out to greet the fleeing emperor. He then sprang out, armed, upon Gratian. A grim chase ensued, resulting in Gratian's ignominious capture and execution at a bridge in the countryside. The Western Empire had been 'liberated' and Maximus was the new emperor. But in the eyes of the Eastern Emperor, Theodosius, his revolt had been illegal, taking place without even seeking permission from him.  Magnus Maximus' invasion route of Gaul. An insatiable thirst for powerTheodosius initially accepted Maximus as Gratian’s successor and recognised him as Augustus of the West. However, it was only ever a pragmatic and necessary tolerance, given the difficult times in the East (a period riddled with Gothic and Persian troubles). A permanent and growing tension reigned, with Theodosius weathering accusations of weakness for his inaction against the usurper. Yet the alternative – heading straight to war against the new, well-supported Western supremo – could be catastrophic. Instead, he opted to bind Maximus to an oath that he would satisfy himself with the governorship of Gaul, Hispania and Britannia, leaving Italia and Africa to the young Valentinian II - Gratian's younger brother. Maximus took this oath, and quickly arranged to be baptised, a move perhaps taken to increase his standing with the Orthodox majority in Rome’s growing echelons of Christian power (at the pinnacle of which was Emperor Theodosius himself). The usurper seemed to be doing all the right things in order to be accepted. Yet at the same time, he made the rather unique and macabre decision to keep Gratian’s body unburied. And he carried out the notorious and entirely unjustified execution of Bishop Priscillian - citing withcraft and heresy. These two moves suggest a ruthless and dark side to his character.  The 'Porta Nigra' or Black Gate of Augusta Treverorum (Trier) - the northern entrance to Maximus' capital. And soon after swearing his oath to Theodosius, he began pressuring Valentinian to leave his court in Mediolanum (Milan) and join him in his Gaulish capital, Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier). “A father and son” relationship, is how he proposed it… but the intent was clear - an attempt to appropriate the younger man's government. When Valentinian persitently refused this underhand grab for power, Maximus set about swelling his already strong Western armies, raising numerous new regiments and inviting Germanic tribes into his ranks too. Young Valentinian recognised the growing threat. So, in late AD 387, he dispatched Dominus the Syrian ambassador to Maximus’ capital. According to the early Byzantine chronicler, Zosimus, Maximus apparently charmed the diplomat out of his wits, convincing him to take a set of 'gift' legions back to Valentinian's court: "Maximus conferred on him so great honours, and so many presents, that Domninus supposed that Valentinian would never again have so good a friend. To such a degree did Maximus succeed in deluding Domninus, that he sent back with the Syrian part of his own army, to the assistance of young Caesar against the Barbarians." Zosimus’ accounts of what followed are vague. He seems to suggest Maximus, with the rest of his army, followed Domninus the diplomat and the 'gift' legions back through the Alpes and tricked or forced his way through the garrisons there, then penetrated deep into Italia, before seizing Africa too.  Maximus' powerful army penetrating through the Alps and into Italia, the land of Valentinian II. Valentinian and his mother, Justina, fled east by ship, arriving at the port city of Thessalonica to plead for help from Emperor Theodosius. First, Theodosius sent stern demands for Maximus to relinquish his conquests. Next, he mustered the armies of the East, including a portion of the settled Goths recently settled in Roman Thracia. He also arranged for detachments of Hun, Alani and Iberian foederati to assist them. With the army assemled come the summer of AD 388, he then marched to war with the West. War!Nobody truly wanted this. The last comparable civil clash had been Emperor Constantius' suppression of a Gallic usurper Magnentius thirty years prior, an expedition that had exhausted the empire militarily and financially for many years afterwards. But Maximus’ aggression and seemingly insatiable territorial expansion meant war was unavoidable. Maximus established an advance army at Siscia (modern Sisak), a city strongly fortified by the River Savus (Save), with the intent of blocking Theodosius' landward line of advance towards Italy. His general, Andragathius, was stationed with strong forces on the approaches to the Julian Alps, while his brother Marcellinus lay in waiting with a third reserve army in nearby Noricum.  The Eastern Empires's movements against Maximus in AD 388. Theodosius and the main body of the eastern army set off along the Via Militaris to meet Maximus' land-blockade at Siscia head-on. Meanwhile, Valentinian and Justina led a smaller band of legions by sea, behind Maximus' lines, to Rome. Valentinian first evaded a last-moment naval ambush led by Andragathius, then landed in Sicily, defeating Maximus’ troops there, before going on to claim the ancient capital. There was also a third prong of attack, with a contingent of soldiers sailing from Egypt to liberate the vital, grain-rich Diocese of Africa. Along the way with the main Eastern land force, Theodosius learned that some of the allied Gothic troops he had mustered by the terms of the peace deal of AD 382 had been bribed by Maximus. It is not clear whether they attacked the legions, sabotaged the march or simply deserted. All we know for sure is that he was denied the services of these tribal warriors. Meanwhile, the two main land forces of East and West finally met in a violent battle at Siscia. Theodosius’ cavalry and legions powered across the River Savus’ ford while Maximus’ defenders rained all manner of projectiles at them. The fighting was fierce, spanning two days and the night in between. Seeking reinforcements, and with General Andragathius absent in his failed attempt to intercept Valentinian at sea, Maximus instead called his brother, Marcellinus, and the reserve army to his aid, but he arrived too late. Thus, Siscia fell to the Easterners and Maximus withdrew. As Gibbon says: "After the fatigue of a long march, in the heat of summer, Theodosius and his army spurred their foaming horses into the waters of the Savus, swam the river in the presence of the enemy, and charged the troops who guarded the high ground on the opposite side."  The Battle of the River Save saw countless Roman legions pitched into battle with one another. Artwork by Sean Ó’Brógáín. Theodosius pursued for several days until East and West clashed again on the plains near the city of Poetovio (modern Ptuj). This time Maximus was reinforced by the army of his brother. Yet it was not enough: "The enemy… fought with the desperation of gladiators. They did not yield an inch, but stood their ground and fell. Finally, Theodosius prevailed." After suffering this second successive reverse, Maximus retreated to the bulwark city of Aquileia, perhaps expecting to withstand a final siege. However, the quick succession of defeats had irreparably damaged the loyalty of his troops. When Theodosius’ advance guard arrived at the city, Maximus was handed over to them and - as described at the start of this piece - was summarily executed. His head was taken on a tour of the provinces. His son, Victor, was slain by Theodosius’ high general, Arbogastes. Dragathius, still hiding out at sea having failed to halt Valentinian, heard of his master's demise and threw himself into the deep. Hero or Tyrant?So it was an ignominious end for the once promising young commander, Maximus the Spaniard. Was he a Roman hero or a megalomaniacal tyrant? Although he saved Britannia from the Great Conspiracy earlier in his career, he certainly left the island in a bit of a predicament, stripping away the majority of its garrison in order to fuel his wars of ambition against Gratian. AD 383, the date he set sail with the British troops, coincides with the end of any evidence of Roman military presence in Wales. However, coins dated later than this have been found along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that at least a skeleton garrison remained. And he seems to have remained a charismatic and popular figure to the people of Britannia whom he left behind. The Welsh legend of Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), recounts how Maximus marries a British woman (creating an imperial British bloodline), and gives her father sovereignty over the island (formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves). Later lore also identifies him as the founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of Powys and Gwent. This does not fit with the picture of Maximus being tyrannical, or 'abandoning' Britannia.  Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to depict Magnus Maximus. Image obtained via Creative Commons CCO. His reputation on the continental side of the channel does not hold up so well, with his broken oath and attack on Valentinian. Did envy and greed get the better of him? And his keeping of Gratian's body unburied and the murder of Bishop Priscillian - are these deeds as grim as they sound... or were they exaggerated by his opponents in the wake of his demise? Whatever the answer, Emperor Theodosius might have thought that by ridding the world of Magnus Maximus, the Roman Empire would know peace once more. But, as with so many ruinous wars, victory left a void of power in the West. And as we know all too well... power hates a vacuum.
"It was an immense slaughter, greater than had ever occurred in any former naval action. Thus the river was filled with dead bodies." As winter fell in AD 386, the Eastern Roman Empire found itself in a position of delicately-balanced stability. The Gothic War had ended four years prior, thanks to a peace deal that granted the Goths Roman lands in the northern parts of the Diocese of Thracia on which to settle and farm. In return for this, their fighting men were to muster for imperial military service if and when Emperor Theodosius called upon them. This system of gradual cultural integration and laying aside of old grievances was only just beginning to settle into place.  The division of Roman Thracia, circa 386 AD - with the Gothic tribes settled in the north. Note, some names and locations are speculative - coming from the novel 'LEGIONARY: THE EMPEROR'S SHIELD' So, the last thing Emperor Theodosius needed was for a huge host of erstwhile unknown Goths to descend from the north and appear at the River Danube, demanding entry into the empire. The early Byzantine century historian, Zosimus, is our main source for the sequence of events. "Odotheus, who had levied an immense army, not only among the nations upon the River Danubius, but among others situated in unknown countries at a great distance, which he was then leading to the river."
The new Gothic arrivals, under their king or high chieftain, Odotheus (or Aedotheus, as Zosimus names him), arrived at the river's northern banks in their multitides. The Roman legions, under the command of General Promotus, were hastily marched to and arrayed along the southern banks. The Goths then proceeded to petition the Romans for permission to cross the river - in this era unbridged - onto Roman soil. Odotheus impelled the Romans from the far banks, arguing that he and his followers had no choice but to seek new homes in the empire - for if they were to remain in the wild north, they would surely fall inder the yoke of the ever-more powerful Huns. Yet the Eastern Empire could not simply open up to such a mass of newcomers: a new immigration of this scale so soon after the Gothic War (which itself had been caused by a the poorly-handled immigration of 376 AD) could have wrecked the whole framework of cooperation. On Odotheus argued for permission to cross... with the tacit threat of invasion if this was refused. The Huns: dominating the many tribes north of the Danube, driving some to the Roman Empire's borders.  General Promotus considers how to handle the Goths of Odotheus, over on the northen banks of the River Danubius. Artwork by Peter Dennis. The Roman response finally came one moonless night. Taking advantage of the poor visibility, General Promotus secretly sent Gothic-speaking Roman agents across the river to bribe Odotheus’ noblemen, asking them to convince their chieftain of a false situation: that the Roman watch was lax this night and that he should seize this opportunity to try to force his way across immediately. Yes, the agents argued, it would mean defeat and death for their leader, Odotheus. But the noblemen were also assured that, after the action, the empire would recognise them as the new leaders of the tribes. The nobles accepted the bribe and approached Odotheus. He took the bait, rallying his people and, in the dead of night, in almost complete darkness, setting across the river in a huge flotilla of crafts. The late 4th century AD poet, Claudian, describes their fleet as 'three thousand vessels strong'. They must have felt invincible. When they reached midriver, everything changed. The Roman watch was anything but lax. General Promotus, lying in wait, sprung his trap. A fleet of Roman galleys, three tiers deep and twenty stadia wide, came speeding out to assault them. As Zosimus describes it: "The night being dark and without a moon, the Barbarians were unacquainted with the preparations which the Romans had made, and therefore embarked with great silence, supposing the Romans to be ignorant of their design. When the signal was made, the Romans sailed up to them in large and strong ships with firm oars, and sunk all that they met, among which not one man was saved by swimming, their arms being very heavy."  General Promotus and the Roman navy smash the vast Gothic flotilla to pieces. Zosimus describes how "Promotus then sent for Emperor Theodosius, who was not far from thence, to witness his brave exploit". This implies that the Eastern Emperor was somewhere close to, or even in the Roman camp, but that he might not have been fully aware of Promotus’ ruse. When Theodosius arrived on the scene of this one-sided this slaughter, it seems that he was horrified rather than impressed. More, he realised that it might forever make enemies of these new Goths and alienate and trigger revolt in those already settled in his lands by the 382 peace deal. Accounts suggest he not only called off the assault, but also waded into the shallows to help the wounded Goths ashore. Apocryphal, probably, but a striking image nonetheless. Fraught as the whole incident had been, it was, nonetheless, a victory for the Eastern Empire. And there was more good news to follow: the tense talks that had for several years been rumbling between the empire and Persia about the division of Armenia was finally agreed, ending the air of uncertainty on that eastern flank. Harmony in the East, stability in the north. And with the Western Roman Empire by its side, the East would find no trouble in that direction... ...until Magnus Maximus arrived on the scene - read all about the momentous history that folowed here! Magnus Maximus, whose actions would trigger a sequence of events that would consign the Roman Empire into a downwards spiral. After a 3 year hiatus, the XI Claudia march again, in... LEGIONARY: THE EMPEROR'S SHIELD! Coming 16th Feb 2023!  I'm delighted to welcome my friend and fellow scribe onto the blog today. Paul Bennett blew me away with his tale of the French Indian War and the ensuing fallout. The Mallory Saga is top-notch historical fiction, and Paul is here to tell you all about it. Take it away, Paul! :) The Humble Scribe Paul Bennett - my stateside buddy and American history expert. I am a retired (recently) data center professional. Not that I started out thinking I would spend nearly 50 years working in mainframe computer environments. My major interests, scholastically, in high school, and college were history, and anthropology. The Cuban missile crisis, Bay of Pigs, assassinations, Vietnam, Watergate, etc., were some of the events that shaped me, forming the basis for my cynical view of government. One of the results of this “hippie attitude” was that I quit school, and my job, taking a year and a half off to travel a bit, and enjoy life. During that period I began composing the odd poem or song lyric, but I knew in my heart, and from experience writing school term papers, final exams, and the like, that I was a prose writer. My favorite fantasy for my future at the time was to become a forest ranger sitting in some fire watch tower writing the great American novel. Life intervened, however, and I put that dream aside to marry, and raise a family, which meant I needed to be employed, thus decades of staring at computer screens ensued. As time went on, I began writing about the golf trips I took with my buddies. At first they were humor laced travelogues, but now they are fictional tales of my friends; the golf becoming a vehicle for creating a story. Then in 2013, I started writing book reviews, and communicating with authors about the process of writing a novel. My dream to write the great American novel returned. The Adventure Begins...The inspiration to write was, in the beginning, merely to see if I could do it. I had written short pieces over the years but to tackle a full blown novel was a daunting prospect. Once the seed was planted I came up with a rough idea of telling the story of three siblings living somewhere in colonial America. Choosing that general locale was a natural fit for me as I’ve been a lifelong student of American history and I felt that if I was going to write a historical fiction novel, it might be prudent to choose a subject I knew a little about. I picked The French and Indian War as the starting point for what was now becoming a possible series of books that would follow the Mallory clan through the years. That war intrigued me and I saw a chance to tell the story through the eyes of the Mallory family. It also provided me with the opportunity to tell the plight of the Native Americans caught up in this conflict. The French and Indian War paved the way for the colonies to push further west into the Ohio River area. It also set the stage for the events of the 1770’s. Britain incurred a huge debt winning that war and looked to the colonies for reimbursement in the form of new taxes and tariffs. Well, we all know how those ungrateful colonists responded. As to the name Mallory – I have a photo hanging on my living room wall of my great grandfather, Harry Mallory. I got to know him when I was a young boy and was always glad when we visited him. He lived a good portion of his life in western Pennsylvania which is where much of Clash of Empires takes place. So, as a gesture to my forebears, Mallory became the name of the family.  Clash of Empires In 1756, Britain and France are on a collision course for control of the North American continent that will turn into what can be described as the 1st world war, known as The Seven Year’s War in Europe and The French and Indian War in the colonies. The Mallory family uproots from eastern PA and moves to the western frontier and find themselves in the middle of the war. It is a tale of the three Mallory siblings, Daniel. Liza and Liam and their involvement in the conflict; the emotional trauma of lost loved ones, the bravery they exhibit in battle situations. The story focuses on historical events, such as, the two expeditions to seize Fort Duquesne from the French and the fighting around Forts Carillon and William Henry and includes the historical characters George Washington, Generals Braddock, Forbes and Amherst. The book also includes the event known as Pontiac’s Rebellion in which the protagonists play important roles. Clash of Empires is an exciting look at the precursor to the events of July 1776; events that will be chronicled in the second book, Paths to Freedom, as I follow the exploits and fate of the Mallory clan.  Paths to Freedom In Paths to Freedom the children of the three Mallory siblings begin to make their presence known, especially Thomas, the oldest child of Liza and Henry Clarke (see right there, already another family line to follow), but Jack and Caleb, the twin sons of Liam and Rebecca along with Bowie, the son of Daniel and Deborah are beginning to get involved as well. The French and Indian War, the historical setting for book 1, was over, and the Mallory/Clarke clan is looking forward to settling and expanding their trading post village, Mallory Town, now that the frontier is at peace. And for a time they had peace, but the increasing discontent in the East, not so much toward the increasing rise in taxes, but the fact that Parliament was making these decisions without any input from the colonies, slowly made its way west to the frontier. Once again the Mallory/Clarke clan would be embroiled in another conflict. Another facet of my saga is that the main characters are not always together in the same place or even the same event. In Paths my characters are spread out; some have gone East, some have gone West, some are sticking close to Mallory Town, so in effect there are three stories being told, and that means more plots, subplots, twists and surprises. One of the aspects of the lead up to The Revolutionary War was the attempt by the British to ensure cooperation with the Native Americans, especially the Iroquois Confederation. The British had proclaimed that they would keep the colonies from encroaching on tribal lands, a strong inducement indeed. However, some tribes, like The Oneida, had established a good relationship with the colonists. I knew right away when I started book 2 that the relationship between the Mallory’s and the tribes would be part of it. Among the historical Native Americans who take part in Paths are the Shawnee Chiefs; Catecahassa (Black Hoof), Hokoleskwa (Cornstalk), Pucksinwah (father of Tecumseh), and the Mingo leader Soyechtowa (Logan). I also realized that I needed to get someone to Boston, and the Sons of Liberty. Thomas Clarke, the eighteen year old son of Liza and Henry, was the perfect choice for the assignment (mainly because he was the only child old enough at the time). J Through him we meet the luminaries of the Boston contingent of rebels, Paul Revere, Dr. Joseph Warren, John Hancock, and the firebrand of the bunch, Sam Adams. Plenty of history fodder to be had…British raid in Salem…Tea Party…the famous midnight rides…culminating with the Battle of Lexington and Concord. Oh yes, plenty of opportunities for Thomas.  An untenable situation arises in Mallory Town resulting in Liam and his two companions, Wahta and Mulhern, finding themselves on a journey to the shores of Lake Michigan and beyond. Driven by his restless buffalo spirit, Liam has his share of adventures; encountering a duplicitous British commander, meeting many new native tribes, some friendly, some not so much. A spiritual journey in a land not seen by many white men. I ended Paths with the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the first shots of The Revolutionary War. The flint has been struck; the tinder has taken the spark. Soon the flames of war will engulf the land, and the Mallory clan will feel the heat in the third book, Crucible of Rebellion. Crucible of Rebellion The timeline for Crucible is 1775 – 1778. I decided to split the Revolutionary War into two books, mainly because there is so much more action as opposed to The French & Indian War…and because as I was writing, my characters insisted on some scenes I hadn’t previously thought of. J Book 4 of the saga is in the planning stages. Tentative title – A Nation Born. The three Mallory siblings, Daniel, Liza, and Liam play important parts in CoR, but it is their children who begin to make their marks on the saga. Their youngest son, Ethan, and their daughter Abigail, of Daniel and Deborah travel with their parents to Boonesborough, and reside there with Daniel Boone. The war reaches even this remote frontier, prompting Daniel and Deborah to move further west in search of peace. However, the banks of The Wabash River prove not to be immune to conflict. Their eldest son, Bo accompanies Liam’s twins, Jack and Cal, first to Fort Ticonderoga, then to Boston with a load of cannon for General Washington’s siege of Boston (the Noble Train of Artillery with Colonel/General Henry Knox). In Boston they meet up with Liza and Henry’s son Thomas, who is no longer a prisoner (can’t say more than that) J, Marguerite, and Samuel Webb. General Washington has plans for the Mallory boys…plans which see some of them in a few of the more important battles of the war… the escape from Long Island, the surprise attack at Trenton, the turning point battles at Saratoga NY, as well as taking part in numerous guerilla type skirmishes. A long ways away from the conflict Liam, with Wahta, are living with the Crow along the Bighorn River. Liza and Henry made the trip to Boonesborough with Daniel and Deborah, but do not go with them to The Wabash….they have their own adventures.  A Nation is Born A Nation Is Born - book 4 of the saga covers 1779-1781 As the Revolutionary War shifts south, and west, so too, the Mallory’s find themselves right in the thick of it. On the banks of the Congaree River in South Carolina, and on the Wabash in the Northwest Territory, war is not the only problem they face. Revenge stirs among the embers of war. At the battles of Cowpens and Guilford Court House in South Carolina, and the retaking of Fort Sackville on the Wabash River, the Mallory's are tried and tested. Emotions run high in this tale of revolution and self-determination.  Although I write fiction tales, the historical aspect of the saga provides the backdrop. History is often overlooked, or is taught with a certain amount of nationalistic pride, whitewashing controversial events, much to the detriment of humankind. So I hope that what I write might help broaden the reader’s horizon a bit, that what they learned in school isn’t necessarily the whole story. Two main historical topics in the story of America that frequent The Mallory Saga are slavery, and the plight of the indigenous people who have lived here since before the founding of Rome; two historical topics that linger still in America’s story. Entertainment and elucidation; lofty goals for a humble scribe telling a tale. A Turbulent Beginning A Turbulent Beginning – book 5 - 1788-1795 The Revolution is over, and a new nation has emerged from the ashes of war. The new government, leery of a powerful central government, learns quite quickly the folly of state legislatures controlling military operations, abandoning The Articles of Confederation to write The Constitution. More lessons are learned by this second attempt when they discover that the indigenous tribes along the Ohio were more than a match for militia troops. It is time for President Washington and his War Secretary Henry Knox to come up with a better plan to pacify the warring tribes. The Mallory clan is spread out from the Congaree River in South Carolina to the Wabash River in the Northwest Territory. The desire to be together again is stronger than the fear of traveling through a war zone. They are once again in the middle of the storm…can they survive…can they make a difference? The Jagged Mountains The Jagged Mountains – book 6 – 1783-1808 In The Jagged Mountains, I took a slightly different approach to this entry into The Mallory Saga. Not only is it partly in first-person it is also a tale with very little historical content. When I started thinking about how to present Jack’s quest, I decided to make it as personal as possible. Using a first-person narrative for Jack gave my Muse free rein to delve into how Jack responds to the challenges he faces; his thoughts, his fears, and his joys. As for the historical aspect, or lack thereof, that really excited my Muse. She loves to color outside the lines so to speak, so in this tale, she had a blank page to fill with her imaginative whims. Obviously, there was no Raven Army that rampaged through the plains and mountains, but the idea of a pan-Indian alliance is not a farfetched one. Indeed, as you’ll learn in book 7, one of the more formidable confederations of tribes arises under Tecumseh. Then of course in 1874 another tribal alliance destroys the 7th Cavalry. Well I hope I’ve piqued your interest in American historical fiction, and in particular The Mallory Saga. If so moved, the buy links are below. Crucible of Rebellion paperback will be out soon. Follow the progress of The Mallory Saga here:
Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/mallorysaga Mallory Saga Wordpress Blog: https://clashofempires.wordpress.com/ Amazon link: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B087T5DWRB The Bronze Age began around 3,300 BC. It was an era in which the near eastern world knew stability. The mighty Empires of Egypt, Assyria, The Hittites, Babylon, Mitanni and Mycenaean Greece dominated the map, underpinning a thriving 'palace' economy. The eastern Mediterranean would have been thronged with trade boats and the overland routes packed with mules and wagons, carrying to and fro all sorts of ancient commodities: iron, silver, tin, copper, lead; horses, wool and textiles from the Hittite lands; gold and scarab jewels from Egypt and turquoise from the Nile deserts; slaves from Nubia; jasper & Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan; jewellery and perfumes made in Crete by Minoan artisans; oil and wine from Greece.  The rich and prosperous trade networks of the Late Bronze Age. Map image (c) Simeon Netchev: https://tinyurl.com/bde7t8fv
There were also famous wars between these rivals, but also great peace pacts too. For the peoples of these times, it must have seemed like the ebb and flow of things, as if the empires were eternal, and that the ways of the Bronze Age would last forever. Then, around 1200 BC, everything changed....  The Fall of Troy, by Daniel Van Heil, Via the Web Gallery of Art; with Court of the Medinet-Habu Temple, Carl Werner, 1874, via the Wellcome Collection; and a late Bronze Age sword, from Epirus Greece, Via the British Museum. It is for good reason that we refer to that period as ‘The Bronze Age Collapse’ – a catastrophic end of an epoch, in which many of the great empires were blown away in a storm of destruction. The aftermath was truly bleak. Civil order gave way to chaos. The delicately balanced trade networks crumbled to nothing. The palace economy (a fragile, dangerously overspecialised system) vanished, to be replaced a few centuries later by dark age Greek village economy. Literacy collapsed – ushering in an age of oral tradition which gave rise to the likes of the Trojan War legend. What caused this collapse? The likelihood is that it was triggered by not one, but many causes. Firstly, the 13th century BC was a time of drought, as palaeoclimatologists have discovered. Pollen samples indicate a long-lasting dry spell, stretching all the way from northern Turkey to the northern Nile Delta. More, tree ring examinations show 5 or more years of uncharacteristically low rainfall in Anatolia. The Hittite tablets confirm this with accounts of drastic crop failure and starvation. They also detail the remarkable deal struck between the Hittite Great Queen, Puduhepa, and the Egyptian Pharaoh, Ramesses II, to arrange relief shipments of grain from Egypt to the Hittite realm. Ramesses also sent his best irrigation experts to attempt to revive Hittite soil, but to no avail – the Bronze Age dams at Arinna and other Hittite sites across Anatolia date to this time and may have been part of these irrigation efforts.  An age of drought... and famine was quick to follow.  The Hittite lands - being dependant on rainfall - were hit hard. They conferred with Egyptian irrigation experts, and built this dam near their city of Arinna (Alacahöyük, Turkey) to trap what rain there was. It didn't work... Secondly, tin – the crude oil of its day – was growing scarce. Without tin, the armies could produce no bronze, and without bronze, they could no longer flex their muscle in the same way as before. This was most probably the driving force behind the Hittites’ apparent experimentation with iron in the last few generations of their time. Iron ore was plentiful around their Anatolian heartland, and promised to equal or even better the strength and durability of bronze.  Bronze metallurgists at work. But without tin, the forges would go cold... Thirdly, seismologists have found evidence of an 'earthquake storm' that gripped the near east for most of the 13th century BC. With the Hittite heartlands sitting smack-bang on the fault lines of Anatolia, they suffered the brunt of this. The Hittite capital of Hattusa, the cities of Troy (a close Hittite ally) and Karaoglun all show evidence of seismic trauma. In Greece too, we see evidence of earthquake damage at the ruins of a whole host of key cities: Mycenae, Tiryns, Midea, Thebes, Pylos, Kynos, Lefkandi, Menalaion, Kastanas, Korakou, Profitis Elias, Gla. And in the levant, the cities of Ugarit, Megiddo, Ashdod and Akko have the same characteristic damage. So too Enkomi on Cyprus.  Earthquake damage at the ruins of Troy. Fourthly, we come to the Sea Peoples. Who, I hear you ask? Some believe they were a fierce horde of northwestern invaders who blazed and razed their way across the near east world in a frenzy. Others would say they in fact arose from within the empires of the time. Some claim they were in fact an unmanageably huge tide of refugees, driven to seek new lands by the drought. The origins of the Sea People is an almighty tangent, which I explore more fully in this companion blog article. All we know is that they arrived in – or possibly arose from – the near east world… and proceeded to churn it into oblivion in two major waves, the first a mainly coastal movement, the second one plunging deep inland. Within a period of forty to fifty years at the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the twelfth century almost every significant city in the eastern Mediterranean world was violently destroyed, many of them never to be occupied again.  The Sea Peoples. Image by Giuseppe Rava. These four factors - drought, tin shortage, earthquakes and invasion - combined to tear down the landscape of civilization and bring the Bronze Age to an end. The Hittite Empire* and the Mycenaean world were wiped from the face of the earth, while a battered Egypt and a much-reduced Assyria limped on into the Iron Age. *One tiny Hittite enclave survived, giving rise to the lesser Neo-Hittite Kingdoms.
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AuthorGordon Doherty: writer, history fan, explorer. 
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